Transformational vs Transactional Leadership Essay Example

Transformational vs Transactional Leadership Paper Leadership Styles, High-Quality Leader-Follower (LMX) Relationships and Job Performance The current globalized economic environment is becoming increasingly dynamic and competitive forcing organizations to improve their business practices to overcome greater challenges with more flexibility, efficiency and innovation in products and internal processes (Walumbwa et al. 2005, p. 235). Certainly, there is fundamental evidence of the positive association of leadership style and the influence on follower’s behaviour as a consistent way to improve job performance and organizational outcomes (Vaccaro et al. 2010). The aim of this paper is to demonstrate the impact of transformational and transactional leadership styles on leader member exchange relationships, job performance and job satisfaction. By using theories such Weber’s conceptualization of charismatic leadership, Burns’ transactional leadership and Bass’ Four I’s of transformational leadership, this paper acknowledge the superiority of transformational over transactional leadership style in developing high-quality leader-follower (LMX) relationships, increasing followers’ job performance and Job satisfaction. Recalling previous studies which asserted the dependence of leadership effectiveness on culture and organizational size (Paul et al. 001), it seems clear that transformational leadership is a more suitable leadership style for small, large and complex companies across cultures facing the challenges of globalization of markets. The superiority of transformational leadership style in building high-quality leader-follower (LMX) relationships is given to the practice of one or more of the Four I’s leadership behaviour. Firstly, Idealized influence through a charismatic behavi our will illustrate the positive influence on followers and their performance. We will write a custom essay sample on Transformational vs Transactional Leadership specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Transformational vs Transactional Leadership specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Transformational vs Transactional Leadership specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer It is followed by the ability to motivate team work and the achievement of general goals that produce personal satisfaction and commitment with the company (inspirational motivation). Furthermore, intellectual stimulation will certainly demonstrate how innovation and creativeness is promoted and their impact on organizational results. Finally, individualized consideration in hand with LMX theory will provide an example of the undoubted benefits of dyadic relationships in ‘in-group’ such greater loyalty and commitment. Leadership styles, high-quality leader-follower (LMX) relationships and Job performance. Focusing in the work of Burns (1978) and Bass (1985) on leadership behaviours, transformational and transactional leadership have been the objective of various research in order to capture the extent to which leaders influence subordinates by involving them in the organization’s goals, or by specifying the rewards that will follow the accomplishment of those goals (Rubin et al. 2005; Yammarino et al. 1997) According to Podsakoff et al. 1990) a fundamental characteristic of transformational leadership behaviour is the ability to create a compelling vision for the organization, providing an appropriate model consistent with that vision, stimulating the acceptance of group goals, expecting high performance, providing individualized support and intellectual stimulation. In contrast, transactional leadership is primarily concern with gaining compliance from subordinates by using a contingent re ward dimension or a passive form of managing by exception. The leader specifies what is expected from organizational members and the subsequent reward for its accomplishment (Bass and Avolio 1990). According to LMX theory, a high-quality leader-follower (LMX) relationship, usually associated with dyads in the ‘in-groups’ of the organization, emphasizes in fundamental levels of loyalty, commitment, respect, affection, mutual trust and the possibility of mutual linking between leaders and followers (House et al. 1993). Transformational rather than transactional leadership is more likely to achieve this superior level in the follower-leader relationship by developing one or more of the Four I’s; Idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration (Bass, BM and Avolio, BJ (eds. ) 1994). Idealized influence A transformational leader acts in a way that becomes a role model or inspirational image for his/her followers (Zhang, X, Cao, Q and Tjosvold, D 2010) usually attributed to his/her charismatic approach. Certainly, charisma in meant to be a requirement for transformational leadership. According to Weber (1947) a charismatic leadership can inspire and motivate people to do more than originally intended. What is more, they can influence followers by arousing strong emotions in support of the organizational vision, creating a leader-follower relationship based on a common value system between leader, follower and organization (Paul et al. 2001). Towler (2003) demonstrated that workers who received a charismatic-training performed better on their knowledge test and were more satisfied with the task. Unlike, transactional leadership emphasizes in the transaction that takes place with followers based on explicit discussion of the rewards they will receive if they fulfil the requirements. As a consequence, the relationship with is limited to the leader’s ability to control the outcomes desired by followers. However, as Dorfman et al. (1999) argued, charismatic behaviour can have a negative implication on societies with a history of autocratic and despotic leaders. Inspirational motivation Undoubtedly, the contingent transactional reinforcement system motivates followers to perform in such adequate way in order to obtain the reward. However, through this system, followers’ job performance, as well as commitment, is strongly limited to fulfil the requirements of the contract in a self-satisfying attitude (Avolio,BJ, Bass, BM and Jung, DI 1999) rather than a commitment with the leader and organizational vision he/she has established. Contrary, transformational leaders promote an organizational citizenship behaviour in which team-supporting behaviours augment followers’ identification with group values. The leader motivates them to transcend from a self-concept to be committed with cooperative team goals. Followers find themself intrinsically motivated to fulfil a collective vision without expecting immediate personal and tangible gains (Wang et al. 2005). Intellectual stimulation Transformational leaders stimulate employees’ effort to be innovative and creative by questioning assumption, reframing problems and approaching situations in different ways (Vaccaro et al. 2010, p. 2). On the other hand, as Podsakoff et al, (1990) exposed, transactional leadership consist in two dimensions; Contingent reward systems, which emphasizes the institution of clear and precise agreements, and management by exception that promotes highly leadership involvement and intervention in order to monitor and ectify any divergence form standards. Amibile (1998) claims that both dimensions inhibit creativity and discourage the initiative to address new ways to facing the work. Although, currently research fail to demonstrate a universal leadership phenomena (Walumbwa et al. 2005, p. 235), transformational leadership, by using intellectual stimulation behaviours, exhibit a cross-cultural benefit on commitment, innovation and job performance, all of them being characteristics of high-quality leader-follower (LMX) relationship. Avolio, Zhu, Koh, and Puja (2004), by gathering data from staff nurses in a large public hospital in Singapore, found a positive association between transformational leadership and organizational commitment. Likewise, Geyer and Steyrer (1998), as a result of a research in Australian banks, reported that transformational leadership had positive effects on employees’ level of effort and task performance. Individual consideration A transactional leader properly identifies employees’ needs in order to make the accurate motivational transactions; as a result, both parts expectations are met and job satisfactions is improved. However the exchange is usually limited to economic or tangible benefits and does not promote leader-follower relationships. In contrast, a transformational leader pays special attention to follower’s individual needs in a widely range, such achievement and growth, by acting as a coach or mentor. The leader demonstrate acceptance for individual differences, promote two-way exchange communication and sees the individual as a person rather than as just an employee (Bass, BM and Avolio, BJ (eds. 1994). In this extent, transformational leader promotes the creation of dyadic relationships with ‘in-group’ members which usually have a high-quality relationship with the leader and are expected to be more loyal to the leader, and perform in a greater extent as an exchange for intangible benefits like career development, participation in decision making, and access to information, between others (Vaccaro et al. 2010, p. 2). According to Deluga (1992), individualized consideration and charisma were two transformational leadership factors that predicted LMX and are the cause for subordinates to behave in ways (such as making extra efforts) that strengthen relational ties with the leader. Conclusion It seems clear that transformational and transactional leadership have positive relationship with organization outcomes; however this paper clearly stated the superiority of transformational leadership on building high-quality leader-follower (LMX) relationships based on the development of the Four I’s. First, by using a charismatic approach, transformational leaders create an idealize influence that augment follower’s emotions and commitment with the leader and organizational vision. Second, this paper claimed that by using inspirational motivating behaviour, leaders motivates followers to transcend from self-interest to commitment cooperative goals which led them to perform without expecting immediate personal benefits. In contrast, the transactional exchange-relationship with followers was meant to be limited to the interest on the reward promised as exchange for their task accomplishment in a very self-satisfying attitude. Given the importance of innovation in today’s organizations, intellectual stimulation was consider to be fundamentally related to followers’ commitment and organization increase on job performance and competitiveness. Unlike, by delimiting the outcome expected from followers and the reward system, transactional leadership was appeared to harm innovation in organization. Not different is the outcome of using managing by exception dimension. Finally, by having an individual consideration, transformational leadership are more likely to developed high-quality relationship members that are expected to be more loyal and perform in greater extent without expecting immediate tangible benefits. In contrast, commitment and higher achievement with a transactional leadership was limited to the exchange of direct economic and tangible benefits. Overall, due to the development of followers and their potential, transformational leadership is assumed to be more appropriate for many different types of companies and situations at any level across cultures. Reference list Amabile, TM 1998. ‘How to kill creativity’. Harvard Business Review, vol. 76, pp. 76–87. Avolio, BJ, Bass, BM, Jung, DI 1999, ‘Re-examining the components of transformational and transactional leadership using the multifactor leadership questionnaire’. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, vol. 72, no 4, pp. 441–462. Avolio, B J, Zhu, W, Koh, W, Puja, B 2004, ‘Transformational leadership and organizational commitment: Mediating role of psychological empowerment and moderating role of structural distance’. Journal of Organizational Behaviour, vol. 4, pp. 1–18. Bass, BM, Avolio, BJ 1990, ‘The Implications of transactional and transformational Leadership for individual, team and organizational development’. Research in Organizational Change and Development, vol. 4, pp. 231–72. Bass, B. M. Avolio, B. J. (eds. ) 1994, Improving organizational effectiveness through transformatio nal leadership, Sage Publications, London. Deluga, R J 1992, ‘The relationship of leader-member exchanges with laissez-faire, transactional, and transformational leadership’. Impact of leadership. pp. 237–247. Dorfman, PW, Howell, JP, Hibino, S, Lee, JK, Tate, U, Bautista, A 1997, ‘Leadership in Western and Asian countries: Communalities and differences in effective leadership processes across cultures’. Leadership Quarterly, vol. 8, no 3, pp. 233–274. Felfe, J, Tartler, K and Liepmann, D 2004, ‘Advanced Research in the Field of Transformational Leadership. Zeitschrift fur Personalforschung – German Journal of Human Resource Research. Special Research Forum, vol. 18, pp. 262–88. Geyer, A, Steyrer, J 1998, ‘Transformational leadership and objective performance in banks’. Applied Psychology: An International Review, vol. 7, no 3, pp. 397–420. House and Aditya; RC, Liden and Maslyn JM 1993, ‘Scale development for a multidimensional mesur of Leader-Member exchange’, Paper presented at annual meeting of the Academy of Management, Atlanta, Georgia. Paul, J, Costley, DL, Howell, JP, Dorfma, PW 2001, ‘The effects of cha rismatic leadership on followers’ self-concept accessibility’, Journal of Applied Social Psychology, vol. 31, no. 9, pp. 1821-1 844. Podsakoff, PM, MacKenzie, SB, Moorman, RH, Fetter, R 1990, ‘Transformational leader behaviours and their effects on followers’ trust in leader, satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behaviour. Leadership Quarterly, vol. 1, pp. 107–142. Rubin, RS, Munz, DC, Bommer, WH 2005, ‘Leading from within: the effects of emotion recognition and personality on transformational leadership behavior’. Academy of Management Journal, vol. 48, pp. 845–58. Towler, AJ 2003, ‘Effects of charismatic in? uence training on attitudes, behaviour, and performance’. Personnel Psychology, vol. 56, no 2, pp. 363–381. Vaccaro, IG, Jansen, JJ, Van Den Bosch, FA, Volberda, HW 2010, ‘Management innovation and leadership: The moderating role of organizational size’, Journal of Management Studies, pp. -23. Walumbwa, FO, Orwa, B, Wang, P, Lawler, JJ 2005, ‘Transformational Leadership, Organizational Commitment, and job satisfaction: A comparative study of Kenyan and U. S. financial firms’, Human resource development quarterly, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 235-265. Wang, H, Law, K, Hackett, R, Wang, D, Chen ZX 2005, ‘Leader-member exchange as a mediator of the relationship between transformational leadership and followers’ performance and organizational citizenship behaviour’, Academy of Management Journal, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 420-432. Weber, M 1947, ‘The theory of social and economic organizations’, translated by T. Parson, New York. Yammarino, FJ, Dubinsky, A J, Comer, LB, Jolson, MA 1997, ‘Women and transformational and contingent reward leadership: a multiple-levels-of-analysis perspective’. Academy of Management Journal, vol. 40, pp. 205–22. Zhang, X, Cao, Q, Tjosvold, D 2010, ‘Linking transformational leadership and team Performance: A con? ict management approach’, Journal of Management Studies, pp. 1-26.

Lawyers obligation etc essays

Lawyers obligation etc essays There are times when the ethical/moral obligation of confidentiality seems to be absolute. One of these is, and must be, that between a recognized confessorpriest, rabbi, ministerand the person confessing. Whether there are or should be exceptions to this is debatable; does the confessor have an obligation to make known an individual's intent to commit murder, for instance, or the fact that a murder has already been committed' It is interesting, and, while not the subject here, may shed some light on the ethical basis for confidentiality between lawyer and client. In addition, for lawyers, the obligation of confidentiality is a formally imposed obligation (as for priests). In fact, religion as known for the past couple thousand years would not be what it is without it, a mechanism for cleansing souls, among other things. Just so, the system of British jurisprudence would not be what it is without the obligation of confidentiality, through which the deeds and misdeeds of men can be weighed by human scales. The obligation of confidentiality means, in a purely utilitarian sense, that the adversary must diligently pursue truth. With luck, the give and take, again in a utilitarian sense, will produce that, For example, if a lawyer is to represent a client he or she knows is guiltyand if any lawyer taking the case would know the same thing because of a confession or a video or other solid evidentiary materialwithout confidentiality, that accused person could not obtain representation, never mind justice. In turn, that would throw the concept of English jurisprudence into turmoil. It would, in fact, virtually eliminate the need for trial by jury in some casesor even in many casesand that would prevent the refinements of law that exist in assessing and assigning de...

How to Get Your CDL in Alaska and Nebraska

How to Get Your CDL in Alaska and Nebraska This article is useful for anyone who wants to get your CDL in Alaska and Nebraska. If you want to learn about earning a CDL at other states, we have put together a comprehensive guide on how to get a CDL  in every state of the country. AlaskaAnyone  working temporarily in Alaska with  a CDL from another state can  work using their  home state CDL. But if transferring to a permanent position or moving to  Alaska full time, one must get an Alaska  CDL.To apply for a CDL in Alaska, you must:Provide proof of birthdate and identityBe 21+ years old when you apply if planning to drive inside and outside of AlaskaBe 19+ years old when you apply if planning to drive only within AlaskaHave held a regular driver’s license for at least one yearProvide your Social Security numberPass the vision, written, and road testsHave a valid medical cardWritten TestThe first part of the written test is a general knowledge test covering road rules, commercial vehicle laws, basic operati on knowledge, and safety procedures. Ever applicant takes the general knowledge test.  Once you pass this, you will be tested on other technical areas if they are applicable to your chosen vehicle.Road TestOnce you’ve passed your written tests, you must  take a road test, which is broken down into three parts:Pre-trip Inspection.  You must pass the pre-trip inspection before you will be permitted to go on to the basic skills portion of the road test.Basic Skills Test.  This test will cover maneuvers like  parallel parking, backing, alley docking, the forward stop, backward serpentine, and straight line backing. You must pass this portion of the road test before you  will be permitted to go on to the  driving skills portion of the road test.Driving Skills Test.  In this part  of the test, the examiner will ask you to perform a number of basic and complex driving maneuvers: right and left turns, intersections, urban and rural straight driving, urban and rural lane changes, freeway driving, stopping and starting, driving on curves, upgrades, downgrades, railroad crossings, bridges and under/overpasses.NebraskaWhen applying for a CDL in Nebraska, you must provide:Proof of valid U.S. citizenship or Proof of Lawful StatusU.S.-based identityA current address in NebraskaA  valid social security numberYou mustBe 21+ years old when you apply if planning to drive inside and outside of  NebraskaBe 18+ years old when you apply if planning to drive only within NebraskaTake a knowledge and skills testKnowledge TestYou are required to take one or more knowledge tests, depending on the  class of license and   endorsements you need.The general knowledge test is taken by all applicants.The passenger transport test is taken by all bus driver applicants.The air brakes test is taken if your vehicle has air brakes, including air over hydraulic brakes.The combination vehicles test is taken if you want to drive combination vehicles.The hazardous materi als test is required if you want to haul hazardous materials as defined in 49 CFR 383.5.The tank vehicle test is taken  if you want to haul any liquid or gaseous materials in tank(s) with  an individual rated capacity of 119+ gallons.The doubles/triples test is taken if you want to pull double or triple trailers.The school bus test is taken if you want to drive a school bus.Skills TestFinally, if and when you pass the required knowledge test(s), you can take the CDL skills tests. There are three types of general skills that will be tested: vehicle inspection, basic vehicle control, and on-road driving. You must take these tests in the type of vehicle for which you wish to be licensed.

Educational Web Portal's Use in the Study of Environmental Sciences Essay

Educational Web Portal's Use in the Study of Environmental Sciences - Essay Example While environmental science has gained a lot of attention of people in general and the educationalists in particular in the advanced economies, it remains a relatively neglected area of education in the third world countries primarily because there are several issues of much greater importance like poverty, hunger, violence, and terrorism that need to be solved before the people can pay attention towards the environment. Reduced emphasis of the government and the people in power on environmental sciences as an area of research and education restrains people’s access to the potential sources of information related to environmental sciences in the third world countries. In such circumstances, there is dire need of an online network that encapsulates all the required information about environmental sciences and one that is constantly upgraded and updated to make the latest findings and knowledge generated from the ongoing research and surveys in the advanced countries accessible to the interested learners in the third world countries. An educational web portal is a very effective tool to inculcate knowledge about the environmental science. People can connect with one another to form a learning community using the educational web portals. ... Educational web portals host research, lesson plans, and online course work, provides parents with a means to access the grades, monitor student outcomes, and satisfy the reporting standards established by the state. Educational web portals develop a common gateway to all the services and data that people need to share knowledge and jointly work on the environmental science projects. Educational web portals can be developed using such basic technologies as Windows Server and Microsoft Office SharePoint Server. Rapid availability of these technologies and expertise in their use extends the investment’s value in the Microsoft technologies. Educational web portals help the people achieve different kinds of goals and tasks that include but are not limited to the development of online communities for collaboration among the learners, administrators and the subject experts. â€Å"Portals, when properly designed, increase both effectiveness and efficiency of an institution†¦[an d] can be used as an effective communication tool† (Popovic et al., 2005, p. 322). People can use the educational web portals to improve the sharing of best practices in the industry among the members of the community. Users of the educational web portals can access the institution’s resources whenever required. The online document libraries available on the educational web portals are constantly updated with latest research findings and important documents like conference proceedings. When educational web portals are implemented in schools, it provides several kinds of services including lunch ordering, and online class registration. Educational web portals use dashboards to display updated performance data of the students. Students can share information with the community members, school

Product Liability Case Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Product Liability Case - Research Paper Example However, she was subsequently diagnosed shoulder chondrolysis that caused her shoulder socket and ball to fuse, severely restricting shoulder motion. As a result, she filed a product liability suit against I-Flow Corp, which manufactured the â€Å"PainBuster† device. In this case, she asserted that the device had not received FDA approval for use in such cases, arguing the product’s manufacturer was liable for the sale of this product despite not giving adequate warning and was, therefore, unreasonably dangerous (Moylan, 2015). There is no mention of the insurance company in the article, which might be explained by the fact the case was initially thrown out and the insurance company was not needed. The Courts of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit found that, for medical devices, negligence of instruction was grounds for product liability, stating that this finding was not in contravention of the Medical Device Amendments of 1976 or the underlying intent of the US Congress in making these amendments to the Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act (Moylan, 2015). The suspected reason for Christina’s disorder was a â€Å"pain pump† that her doctors used to directly administer painkillers to her shoulder joint following the surgical procedure. Normally, this device is used to deliver different types of pain medications to the surgery site quickly and directly. However, the procedure involved in using the device has been linked to development of chondrolysis, which is a debilitating condition of the joints. This disorder causes the depletion of cartilage that separates and connects bones and, as a result, the joints become fused and lose all mobility. In majority of cases, the discov ery and diagnosis of this condition happens too late for any effective treatment or cure (Moylan, 2015). Before submitting her product liability case to court, Christina requested the court to instruct the jury on the negligence theory per se.

Endangered Animals should be protect Essay Example for Free

Endangered Animals should be protect Essay ‘Would you like to see humans becoming extinct after sometime? Animals are as important as humans and then how can we see animals extinct. Mahatma Gandhi (1956) had a quote which was ­Ã¢â‚¬ The greatness of a nation and its moral progress can be judged by the way animals are treated†. There are several animals who are on the line of becoming extinct. Animals that are on the line of extinction are called Endangered Animals. If the current Endangered animals became extinct then many resources that people use will also disappear. We should save Endangered Animals due to that animals maintain healthy ecosystem, and animals provide with food source and raw materials. Essentially, animals help maintain the healthy ecosystem. The ecosystem is the connected in chains known as food chains and food webs. If one of the animal becomes extinct the whole chain is disturbed and there would be increase of some animals and decrease of some animals. The animals also maintain the balance of the nature. Animals helps the humans in many ways directly or indirectly. A scientific research by the World Wildlife Fund shows that the Tigers helps us protect the forests and other endangered animals but tigers are on the edge of getting extinct. There are only 3,200 tigers left in the world. â€Å"Would you like to work for someone and in return getting nothing except getting being killed†? The above explanation explain us that we need to save the endangered animals and this is one of the reasons we should save them.

Studying Genetically Altered Mice in Behavioral Genetics :: Behavioral Genetics

The field of behavior genetics is rapidly expanding. The practice of altering genes in mice and observing the effects is very common. Because of this it would be appropriate to adopt specific tests which will demonstrate the behavioral phenotype of the organism. In testing for the effects of genetic alteration it must first be ascertained that all of the necessary genotypes are represented. These include homozygous and heterozygous mice and wild type mice with no genetic alterations as controls. If significant differences are found between male and female mice the two sexes must be evaluated on their own. Care must also be taken in selecting the right strain of mice. This is because it has been found that in the strains that are usually used for testing some behaviors are noted to be aberrant and the unusual behavior in these genes might lead to the misinterpretation of the studied mutation. Different approaches are used in order to make the interpretation of these results more accurate in this sort of genetic background. When evaluating the behavior of genetically altered mice it must be ascertained that the mice don’t show any signs of aberrant behavior which would make further testing difficult or impossible. Indices of general health are obtained by recording the mouse’s weight, temperature, and any abnormal features. Neurological function is then assessed using different types of tests. The mouse is stimulated to see if it reacts normally to various different types of stimuli. Reflexes are measured by seeing how the animal reacts to a moving surface, light, and touch. The mouse is then observed in an area resembling an open field where its movements are recorded. Motor coordination is measure by placing it on a rotating rod and seeing how well it maintains its balance. This is also measures by recording its footprints in ink and measuring their pattern and the distance between them. The hearing ability of mice is also measured. These tests can help demonstrate the behavioral paradigms for the animal that is being studied. In some cases a deficit in motor or neurological function might make it impossible to run any further tests since almost all behavioral tests require certain basic functions such as locomotion. Sometimes the tests will have to be altered in order to effectively study the behavioral phenotype of the mice because of deficits in their functioning.

The requirement for employers to allow maternity leave under United Kingdom law is a disadvantage to women in the workplace.

Introduction Women in the workplace have historically struggled to be on an equal footing with men both in terms of pay and positions that they could achieve. In the U.K, where women are the majority population (51%) (ONS 2011), efforts to ease workplace discrimination and to provide equal opportunities have become central issues for political policy debates. Maternity laws exist to improve the health of newborn babies and the mother and at the same time minimize the inconvenience of working mothers while they are at such an important stage of their lives. The 2010 Equality act has provided the legal framework to end workplace discrimination and specifically addresses maternity discrimination. The Marmot review in 2010 that assessed the social determinants of health in the U.K has underscored well paid maternity and paternity leave as important for child and maternal health (Ward 2011). While government policy provides for maternity leave and benefits, availing these benefits have often disadvant aged women at the workplace. This paper will address issues surrounding maternity leave and its implications for women in the workplace. Maternity Benefits Late stages of pregnancy and postnatal care are important periods in the life of a woman and maintaining a healthy mind and body during these stages is critical for the baby’s health. Maternity leave and the maternity benefits are clearly social policies that help working women strike a balance between work and their parental role. Current policy permits women to take up to a year off from work to take care of their newly born. The regulations also permit women to return to their same jobs if they chose to within 26 weeks (The Telegraph 2014). The policy also permits women to request their employees for flexible working hours once they return to work. However, one of the stipulations is that women should take maternal leave in one block and are not allowed to break and manage their leave. These provisions are certainly essential from a social policy point of view as the Marmot review points to strong positive association between paid maternal leave and improved child health ou tcome (Ward 2001). The benefits of such policies lies in the health improvement and the potential savings on the NHS child healthcare costs (Ward 2011). While the benefits of maternal leave cannot be disputed, the current debate surrounds the continuing discrimination of women at the workplace and how maternal leave and benefits could actually contribute to preferential treatment of men over women in the labor market. Economic recession has also contributed to the increased discrimination against pregnant women. As a recent report from the U.K charity ‘Working Families’ has pointed out, there are growing number of complaints from women about pregnancy discrimination across the UK labor market (Working Families 2009). Evidence from recent surveys in the U.K of women who availed maternity leave has only confirmed the alleged discrimination against pregnant women. One survey commissioned by Slater & Gordon, one of the leading law firms in the U.K, for instance, reveals that ‘women are suffering in silence’. This survey pointed out that women are made redundant while on maternity leave and that one in seven wome n lost their jobs after availing of the leave. Among the survey participants, 40% indicated that their jobs were changed and almost half of them revealed that they were either demoted or that their working hours were cut (McVeigh 2013). As Samantha mangwana, an employment lawyer says many big organizations are part of this prevailing discrimination against pregnant women and frequently engage in out of court settlements. â€Å"I see the same major companies again and again and again, writing out these cheques – accompanied, of course, with a confidentiality clause†(McVeigh 2013). A more recent survey conducted by OnePoll on 1000 women who availed of maternity leave revealed that 30% of the women who rejoined felt that they did not fit in with their work environment anymore and that more than 40% felt that they had lack of support and only 3% of them sought legal assistance over maternity discrimination (McVeigh 2013). These surveys clearly point to the existing trend of maternity discrimination in the workplace. An early qualitative study by the ‘Equal Opportunities Commission’ reported that women on maternity leave were subjected to discrimination in various ways. Some women involved in this study reported that their employees withheld salary increases and bonuses simply because they were on maternity leave. Similarly, several women reported that their employers used the maternity leave period to create changes to their job including demoting them upon return. For instance one of the women in the study said, â€Å"I went from being a regional m anager to a store manager and had to take a ?5,000 pay cut. While I was on maternity leave they advertised â€Å"my† job and gave it to a man just as they had joked they would† (Davis et.al 2005). Evidence from these reports and surveys clearly project a worrisome picture of maternity discrimination and how availing authorized maternity leave could actually be a stumbling block for women in terms of their career prospects, promotions, pay increases and more seriously, how it could actually engender the risk of losing one’s job. A more exact picture of the prevailing scenario is the fact that since 2007 there have been more than 9000 pregnancy discrimination cases against employees across the UK. Speaking of the trend, Maria Miller, the minister for ‘Women and Equalities’, said, â€Å"It’s unacceptable that women suffer from discrimination when they become pregnant and yet many are saying that they are treated unfairly at work because of itâ⠂¬  (DCMS, 2013). A new national research at the cost of ?1m has been commissioned to assess and to address the systemic problems that have resulted in the plight for women. It is expected that the findings from this research and further policy reforms would contribute to improving the situation for pregnant working women (DCMS 2013). However, already there is some good development from the legal policy perspective that would ease the situation for women. New Parental Leave (More Choice) Given the existing problems and the resultant gender bias in the labor market it is clear that providing maternity leave and benefits as social welfare scheme , though absolutely essential from the health perspective of the newborn and the mother, has only added to the woes of women in the job market. A new and potentially improved social care policy is the proposed ‘shared parental leave’ policy which is slated to come into effect from April 2015. Under this scheme newborn baby care could be easily shared between the father and the mother. This new policy permits fathers to take paternal leave just as mothers could up to 50 weeks and also permits them to take the leave in a discontinued pattern so that mothers and fathers can alternate in caring for the newborn baby while at the same time balance their work and family. This provides an opportunity for women who want to return to work a little early not to be overly concerned or stressed out about the baby care as the fa ther could equally share the care of the newborn. Conclusion Maternity leave and maternity benefits are indispensable provisions from a pure social care perspective. These policies are in place to provide support to working women and to improve the health standards of the child and the mother. However, employers who are under pressures of poor economy are often discriminatory against pregnant women as the cost of maternity payments and the long leave of absence from work are considered to be unnecessary and avoidable costs to the company. This has resulted in women availing maternal leave to be left redundant and replaced by others. Those who return back to work are also forced to compromise their work status and compensation resulting in poor career prospects for the woman. Though maternity benefits are government policies and legal recourse is an option against maternity discrimination, barely a small percentage of affected women take that route to justice. The government has however instigated more research and has also come up with a novel and well balanced solution to the problem with the introduction of the draft for the ‘shared parental leave’. This new provision is certainly a positive step in not only balancing the gender divide but also in avoiding discrimination against women at the workplace as it provides more options for the parents to balance their time between work and baby care. References Davis S, Neathey F, Regan J & Willison R; 2005. Pregnancy discrimination at work: A qualitative study, Pregnant & Productive. Working Paper Series no 23. Pub by The Institute for Employment Studies. [Online] Available at [Accessed March 25th 2014] DCMS; 2013. ?1 million to help tackle pregnancy discrimination at the workplace, [online] Available [Accessed March 25th 2014] McVeigh T; 2013. One in seven women are made redundant after maternity leave, [online] Available at [Accessed March 25th 2014] ONS; 2011. 2011 Census: Population Estimates for the United Kingdom, [Online] Available at [Accessed March 25th 2014] The Telegraph; 2014. New Parental leave: What’s on offer for mums and dads[Online] Available at [Accessed March 25th 2014] Ward R; 2011. Health and equality impacts of well-paid parental leave, Pub by WHEC and MA. [Online] Available at [Accessed March 25th 2014] Working Families; 2009. Report of Working families helpline and Alliance against pregnancy discrimination in the workplace. Pregnant women and new mums at risk of redundancy. [Online] Available at http://www.fawcettsociety.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/PRENANCY-DISCRIMINATION-2.pdf > [Accessed March 25th 2014]

Poems-in the Shadow of Signal Hill Essay

In the Shadow of Signal Hill Signal Hill is a strikingly shaped hill or small peak overlooking the harbour of Cape Town. It has been used as a lookout post since the early days of the Cape colony. From it, the viewer can see Robben Island, the bare scar where the suburb of District Si stood before its occupants were evicted and its buildings demolished and Langa, a black township on the outskirts of suburban Cape Town. The overall significance of the title of the poem is that â€Å"Signal Hill† represents the higher, white authority or white government of the Apartheid era. The fact that it is a hill implies how the white government saw themselves as the superior party, the party that was raised above the nation they control. The part â€Å"in the shadow† of Signal Hill represents the black people who suffered under the Apartheid regime. They were the people who had to live in the shadows of the white government. The government overshadowed their whole lives and basically made their choices for them. The word â€Å"shadow† also bears a connotation of fear in general. When one looks at children’s books, one will notice that the antagonist in the stories would be a â€Å"shadowy figure†. Therefore the â€Å"Shadow of Signal Hill† suggests the white government is the antagonist in terms of them being wrong in what they are doing – which is initiating Apartheid in South Africa. 1. in the howling wind 2. by the murky waters 3. of the sea a cold, unpleasant atmosphere is created. Metaphor: howling wind might refer to the cries of the black people, their pleads for freedom and equality. 4. children of colour – refers to coloureds, Asians, black people and all others who suffered under the Apartheid regime. 5. gather shells 6. and hold them to their ears 7. and listen to the lamentations of slaves – cries/ weeping of the slaves. â€Å"lamentations† connects with â€Å"howling wind† which emphasises the suffering of the black and coloured people. 8. in the dungeon of death  since the children listen to the cries of the slaves in the dungeon of death while holding shells to their ears, it is possible that the shells can be a metaphor for the dungeon of death, which, in turn, is a metaphor for the situation the slaves or coloured and black people are in. This symbolises the helplessness of black people. 9. in the howling wind 10. by the murky waters 11. of the sea repetition of the first three lines adds emphasis to them. 12. sons of langa – Langa was a black township on the outskirts of suburban Cape Town. Langa not only represents the houses of the township, it also refers to the people who lived in Langa, therefore Langa is a community. â€Å"sons of langa† – the generation of the townships. This implies that the future generations will also be affected by Apartheid, whether it has ended or not. 13. gather at the ruins of district six 14. and sharpen the spears of the night 15. and the heroes from the island urge This possibly represents someone like Nelson Mandela, the infamous freedom-fighter. 16. go towards the fiery dawn . . . fiery: to be angry: the speaker suggests that the coloured or black people are angry, as it is expected since they have been treated like slaves by the white government for most of their lives. †fiery dawn† also suggest that an â€Å"angry break of day†, meaning that the coloured people wake up angry in the mornings. They are angry and frustrated with their circumstances. dawn: -the beginning of a phenomenon or period of time. -the break of day. Here it is suggested that the â€Å"fiery dawn† is indeed a new period of time which will commence. (The time of post-Apartheid.) The coloured people are angry and will take this anger and fight for their freedom. . . .: the ellipse is used effectively instead of a full stop. A full stop would end the poem. But the ellipse signals that the poem is not finished yet. It also resembles time passing. This symbolises that slavery will never come to an end, and no matter how much time passes, Apartheid will always be in the minds of the future generations. But they will keep on fighting for freedom in the future until the government treats everyone equally. About the poet: Patel is a committed political poet and worked on various poems regarding the aspect of politics. About the poem: â€Å"In the Shadow of Signal Hill† is an example of a protest poem. The poem has no punctuation marks or capital letters. This adds to the protest of the speaker. By ignoring common English grammar rules he strengthens the idea of protesting. The layout of the poem represents the waves of the ocean and the ebb and flow. The different lengths in sentences mimic the sea crashing onto the shore (represented by the longer sentences) and the retreating of the sea (represented by the short sentences. No punctuation marks means no stopping or pausing when one reads the poem. This also represents the image of the sea; the sea never stops moving, its waves will continuously crash on the shore, move back and repeat the process. Therefore by removing punctuation the poet effectively creates movement in the poem. Another reason for the lack of punctuation is to stress that there is no stopping slavery and discrimination. It is a never ending problem which will always continue to show its head somewhere else in the world. At comment 12, the highlighted words: Are they wrong/misinterpreted? I don’t know if your comment is a good or bad one. Futhermore, I think the tone is a sad, depressed tone when I read words like â€Å"murky† â€Å"shadow† â€Å"howling wind† â€Å"dungeon of death† â€Å"lamentation†. When I read the poem, I almost feel sorry for the slaves and children. Maybe this is also what the poet wants – to create an emotional atmosphere so the reader can empathise with the black people. I read the other students’ analyses and I agree that the word â€Å"children† is used to suggest innocence, and this stands in contrast with the rest of the tone of the poem. My thoughts are that the images of â€Å"murky waters† and â€Å"howling wind† also contrasts against â€Å"children†, because children are the symbol of happiness, laughter and care free circumstances. This, however is not the case with Langa. therefore the word â€Å"children† is used effectively to create contrast. I read the other students said that the spears of the night is a metaphor for the black people fighting back. â€Å"night† and â€Å"spears† usually have negative,  dark connotations, but in this instance it is the opposite: the black people represent freedom and light because they want to fight for what is fair and right. Then I also thought that, although one reads it as â€Å"night†, it can represent the homophone â€Å"knight†. this will make absolute sense in the context of the poem and the explanation just given. (it is like â€Å"Bustle in the House† where â€Å"morning† can be heard as â€Å"mourning†.) â€Å"Knight† also has a positive connotation. In medieval times the knight represented the good. A princess was saved by a knight in shining armour. Therefore the sentence â€Å"sharpen the spears of the night† can be reread as â€Å"sharpen the spears of the knight†, meaning that the people will fight for justice and that which is right?

IBM History

IBM History IBM or International Business Machines is a well-known  American computer manufacturer, founded by Thomas J. Watson (born 1874-02-17). IBM is also known as Big Blue after the color of its logo. The company has made everything from mainframes to personal computers and has been immensely successful selling business computers. The Beginning of IBM On June 16, 1911, three successful 19th-century companies decided to merge, marking the beginnings of IBM history. The Tabulating Machine Company, the International Time Recording Company, and the Computing Scale Company of America joined together to incorporate and form one company, the Computing Tabulating Recording Company. In 1914, Thomas J. Watson Senior joined CTR as CEO and held that title for the next twenty years, turning the company into the multi-national entity. In 1924, Watson changed the company’s name to International Business Machines Corporation or IBM. From the beginning, IBM defined itself not by selling products, which ranged from commercial scales to punch card tabulators, but by its research and development. IBM History of Business Computers IBM began designing and manufacturing calculators in the 1930s, using the technology of their own punch card processing equipment. In 1944, IBM together with Harvard University financed the invention of the Mark 1 computer, the first machine to compute long calculations automatically. By 1953, IBM was ready to completely produce their own computers, which began with the IBM 701 EDPM, their first commercially successful general-purpose computer. And the 701 was just the beginning. IBM History of Personal Computers In July 1980, Microsofts Bill Gates agreed to create an operating system for IBMs new computer for the home consumer, which IBM released on August 12, 1981. The first IBM PC ran on a 4.77 MHz Intel 8088 microprocessor. IBM had now stepped into the home consumer market, sparking the computer revolution. Outstanding IBM Electrical Engineers David Bradley joined IBM immediately upon graduation. In September 1980, David Bradley became one of the original 12 engineers working on the IBM Personal Computer and was responsible for the ROM BIOS code.

Challenges Faced by Managers in the Public Sector

Challenges Faced by Managers in the Public Sector There are different levels of management in the three different sectors of the economy. There are non-managerial employees, first-line managers, middle managers and the top managers. Robbins et al ;( 2009). This essay will critically evaluate the challenges faced by managers in the public sector organisations. The essay will assess the roles of the manager in this sector and the difficulties managers encounter whilst carrying out their duties. The challenges posed by organisational structure and design with an example from the Northampton Borough Council, the issues due to the organisational culture, privatisation of some of the public sector services, the strategic management of the public sector and the complexities due to the constant changing environment in which these organisations operate, and the challenges to managers of the most recent comprehensive budget cuts, will be evaluated in this essay. The typical roles of a manager in any organisation is to organise, lead, plan an d control the activities of the people and other resources within it towards achieving the objectives of that organisation; Naylor (2004). The role a manager plays is dependent on the level of management position although each level has its challenges. At the senior level, the manager’s role is much broader and in depth and it requires creativity and innovativeness; Robbins et al (2009). The senior manager is involved in decision making, strategic management planning and control, the manager, at this level of management is expected to have an understanding of all areas of the organisation to enable sensible handling of any given situation Hanagan;(2008). The role of the manager did not change in the 21st century rather the method of carrying out the above mentioned roles are different, for instance the manager has to organise work differently, communication is more sophisticated such as, the use of internet, mobile telephones and e-mail. In recent times, the management of cha nge is considered as the most important skill of management due to the pace of change in the 21st century Hanagan, (2008).The rapid changes in technology, enormous improvements in communication, the increase in focus on global economy, and the environment are issues to the modern day manager. In addition to the above, the role of the manager in the public sector is challenged by the constant changes in legislation and political policies subject to government in power Hanagan (2008). An organisation is an arrangement which has been set up for a particular purpose. Robbins et al (2009). Different organisations belong to different sectors of the economy. There are three sectors; the public, the private and the third sector such as social enterprises. This three sectors have some common characteristics which are: they all have distinct purpose, each organisation is made up of people, and all create a structure within which the people could carry out their duties Robbins et al(2009). Org anisations are grouped as public sector depending on certain factors such as; how much the organisation competes with similar organisations, goods and services are charged indirectly and how much it allows itself to be influenced by demand and supply of goods and services. The less such organisations are influenced by the above factors the more the organisations are considered as public sector organisations Hanagan (2008). Instances of these organisations are; Local Government council, Libraries, the National Police Force, the Defence Ministry, Colleges and Universities. The common features of these organisations are; they are set up to fulfil specific purposes, they are service motivated, they are accountable to many stakeholders and the public, they carry out their duties for the good of the people and they are funded through the use of taxpayers’ money. Avery important challenge to a manager whether in the public sector or in the private sector is to be aware of their rele vant stakeholders and operate the organisation in ways which will yield maximum returns to each stakeholder group Bloisi et al (2007).

What do you understand by the term the Washington Consensus Does it Essay

What do you understand by the term the Washington Consensus Does it adequately describe the ideology which informs the policies of the IMF in the new millenniu - Essay Example From a technical viewpoint, the term ‘Washington Consensus’ is a name given to the policies which were suggested by Washington based institutes to the Latin American countries in order to bring up and improve their economies. The term was originally created by Williamson and has been a part of political and economic terminology ever since. The defenders of the consensus call it a boon and a path to greater economic freedom for the less developed countries of the world. Those who oppose it call it a cruel implementation of new liberalism and a tool for the global hegemony of America (Williamson, 2000). Williamson himself is well aware of the detractions and has said that people misunderstand the notion completely. He says that audiences around the world think that the Washington Consensus are a name given to neo-liberal policies that have been forced upon various weaker countries by the Washington-based international financial organisations that have led those countries towards a state of crisis and created misery for their people (Harvard University, 2003). The vastly different opinions created by the implementation of the Washington Consensus shows that the policies are controversial if nothing else. The policies themselves were outlined by Williamson (2000) as the implementation of monetary discipline in terms of trade, redirection of public expenditure towards projects that could given high economic returns to the people as well as alleviate poverty (healthcare, education etc.), a broader tax base, free floating interest rates, liberalized trade policies, creation of foreign investment opportunities, privatization of national enterprises, deregulation of the economy and the establishment of competitive exchange rates. While the policies mentioned above might be seen as helpful and useful for a developing economy, there are situations where such policies can be harmful if the implementation is weak or uncontrolled