Direct-Instruction Tutoring for Academic Performance

Direct-Instruction Tutoring for Academic Performance Using Direct-Instruction Tutoring to Improve Academic Performance in Out-Of-Home Care Children Social Policy Proposal Differences in academic achievement is a concept greatly studied in social psychology. There exists a cornucopia of studies investigating issues surrounding the concept with relation to gender, generational, ethnic and class differences (Gil Carvalho, 2016, Duong, Badaly, Liu, Schwartz, Mccarty, Carolyn, 2016, Stephens, Witkow Fuligni, 2011, Hamedani Destin, 2014). However, one far less studied area is the reduced educational attainment found in children placed in out-of-home care (OHC). Out-of-home care refers to children under 18 years who are unable to live with their families, often due to neglect or abuse. It involves the placement of a child in an institutional setting, or with alternate caregivers. The following proposal shall outline examples of such decreased academic performance, as well as discuss the theory of school engagement as a possible explanation. Furthermore, a solution to the issue shall be proposed with respect to a direct-instruction programme. The issue at hand is vast, with OHC children displaying a tendency to largely experience poor life outcomes when compared to children in the general population. Such disparities are visible across many psychosocial dimensions. Higher risk of teenage pregnancy and STD contraction (Dworsky Courtney, 2010), increased levels of homelessness (Brown Wilderson, 2010) and higher rates of substance abuse and mental health issues (Villegas Pecora, 2012) are all documented problems. However, this is most obvious in regards to academic achievement. OHC children often lag one or two years behind their peers in the general population (Trout, Hagaman, Casey, Reid, Epstein, 2008) and are less likely to obtain a diploma, graduate past secondary or enrol in higher education (Villegas Pecora, 2012). At Key Stage 2, 48% of children in care reached the expected academic level in English and mathematics, compared to 79% of all children. The attainment gap continues to increase as children get older: 7% of OHC children go on to attend university, compared to just over 50% of young people in the general population (OHiggins, Sebba, Luke, 2015). Such underperformance in OHC children has been found to be predictive of negative effects in the future, such as criminal convictions and self-harm (Forsman, Brà ¤nnstrà ¶ma, Vinnerljunga, Hjernb, 2016). One explanation for this disparity between OHM children and the general population can be seen in the theory of school engagement (Wang, Willett Eccles, 2011). This theory suggests that academic performance can be categorized into two dimensions of school engagement. Cognitive engagement refers to the level to which the student participates in classroom learning and their ability to regulate such effort. Cognitive engagement is often correlated with grade attainment or test performance (Li Lerner, 2013). The second, affective engagement. This refers to how students perceive their school experience, incorporating their connection to their school, investment in class and relationship with their teachers. There are various studies which highlight the link between school engagement and educational performance. For example, Wang and Holcombe (2010) found school engagement to be directly related to academic achievement as well as functioning and adjustment in the school environment. Low levels of school engagement have also been attributed to delinquency, substance abuse (Li Lerner, 2011) higher drop-out rates (Archambault, Janosz, Fallu Pagani, 2009) and anti-social behaviour (Andrews Duncan, 1997). Decline can also be attributed to bullying, cheating, aggression and conduct issues (Simons-Morton and Chen, 2009). Reasons for the reduction in affective and cognitive engagement seen in OHC children can be seen in studies of other risk-populations which suggest such children are likely to experience less resources, decreased social support, higher-risk environments and increased exposure to adversity (Marks, 2000 and Daly, Shin, Thakral, Selders, Vera, 2009). Furthermore, a study by Gruman, Harachi, Abbott, Catalano Fleming (2008) found that children in OHC experience constant mobility and changes in placement which disrupts their school attendance, negatively affecting their school engagement. This can be seen in a study by Pears, Kim, Fisher and Yoergers (2013) which found that as well as displaying higher levels of externalizing and risk behaviours, children from a foster care sample showed significantly lower mean levels of affective and cognitive engagement in comparison to the children in a control group. This therefore suggests that due to their unstable environment, children in OHC exh ibit less cognitive and affective engagement in school, thus hindering their academic performance. Therefore, one way in which to challenge the disparity between OHC and normal children may be to address their lack of school engagement. A method in which to help decreased cognitive and affective engagement can be seen in direct-instruction (DI) interventions. DI is a specific style of teaching which has been used in many educational programmes designed for at-risk students. It consists of explicit, systematic instructions based on pre-planned lessons, a minimal student-to-teacher ratio, and constant assessment and progress tracking (Stahl, Duffy-Hester Stahl, 1998). DI programmes usually employ a three-step instructional procedure. Teachers must model (provide the appropriate information), lead (implore the correct recall from the student), and test (give immediate feedback and a delayed probe on the task initially attempted (Margaret, Houchins, Steventon, Candace Donya, 2005). DI programmes contain certain elements which can directly enhance aspects of cognitive and affective e ngagement for which OHC children are lacking in with regards to their normal school environment. This can be implemented via the application of supplementary tutoring programmes such as the TYCW (Maloney, 1998 in Flynn et al, 2012), DISTAR (Kim Axelrod, 2005) and the DILC (Cadette, Wilson, Brady, Dukes Bennett, 2016) which follow a DI approach. Such tutoring interventions could be administered by foster parents or carers as part of an institutional or foster care programme for OHC children. The explicit approach of DI has been found to help improve cognitive engagement, made evident through a wealth of literature attaining to how DI programmes can help improve overall grades in disadvantaged children. In a meta-analysis conducted by Borman, Hewes, Overman and Brown (2003), DI was found to be one of the most efficient programmes for improving academic performance in underachieving urban schools. The DI approach was also found to be effective in improving academic outcomes for young people at risk of school failure (Dolezal, Weber, Evavold, Wylie, McLaughlin, 2007). This implies DI programmes are useful to tackling cognitive engagement as it aims at improving academic performance in class. In terms of OHC children, a study by (Flynn, Marquis, Paquet, Peeke Aubry, 2012) conducted a randomized effectiveness trial with 77 foster children who were either involved in an DI intervention programmed or placed in a control group. Results indicated that at the post-test, the fost er children in the experimental group had made statistically and practically greater gains for sentence comprehension, reading and maths computation than those in the control group with relation to the pre-test scores. There is evidence for the ability DI programmes to address affective engagement also. DI improves student investment in class by minimizing the student-teacher ratio, ensuring that students receives more attention, thus increasing their connection with their teacher and bettering their overall experience (Rodriguez Elbaum, 2014). As the number of students increase, there is a reduction in the amount of time that can be spent on instruction and dealing with individual children (Bennett, 1996). This balance helps progress interactions between student and teacher and improves the relationship between the two. This improvement in the classroom experience is best illustrated in studies exploring the effects of classroom size in the achievement of at-risk pupils. For instance, a study by Blatchford, Bassett and Brown (2011) found that smaller classes led to pupils receiving more individual attention from teachers, and having better interactions with them. It was also reported that school engagement decreased in larger classes and that disadvantaged and minority pupils can benefit from a reduction in the student-teacher ratio in terms of more individual attention and facilitating engagement in learning (Finn, Suriani, Achilles, 2007 in Rodriguez Elbaum, 2014). In conclusion, it is clear, that children in OHC suffer from poorer academic achievement then those in the general population. The unstable environment experienced by such children during their academic years effects their ability to engage in classroom activities and general learning. The solution proposed to address this issue encompasses the introduction of tutoring programmes for such children in-line with the structure of DI interventions. Used in compliment to their school education such programmes work to enhance the decreased cognitive and affective engagement these pupils demonstrate in their regular school environment. Introducing such interventions in OHC institutions and foster care programmes should help to minimize the academic disparity between such children and their peers. References Carvalho, R. Gil, G. (2016). Gender differences in academic achievement: The mediating role of personality, Personality and Individual Differences, 94, 54-58 Duong, M.T., Badaly, D., Liu, F.L., Schwartz, D., Mccarty, C.A. (2016). Generational Differences in Academic Achievement among Immigrant Youths: A Meta-Analytic Review, Review of Educational Research, 2016, 86(1), 15-23 Witkow, M.R. Fuligni, A.J. (2011) Ethnic and Generational Differences in the Relations between Social Support and Academic Achievement across the High School Years, Journal of Social Issues, 67(3), 531-552 Stephens, N.M., Hamedani, M.G Destin, M. (2014) Closing the social-class achievement gap: a difference-education intervention improves first-generation students academic performance and all students college transition, Psychological science, 25(4), 943-53 Dworsky, A. Courtney, M.E. (2010) The risk of teenage pregnancy among transitioning foster youth: Implications for extending state care beyond age 18, Children and Youth Services Review, 32(10), 1351-1356 Brown, S. Wilderson, D. (2010) Homelessness prevention for former foster youth: Utilization of transitional housing programs, Children and Youth Services Review, 32(10), 1464-1472 Villegas, S. Pecora, P.J. (2012). Mental health outcomes for adults in family foster care as children: An analysis by ethnicity, Children and Youth Services Review, 34(8), 1448-1458 Trout, A. L., Hagaman, J., Casey, K., Reid, R., Epstein, M. H. (2008). The academic status of children and youth in out-of-home care: A review of the literature. Children and Youth Services Review, 30, 979-994 OHiggins, A., Sebba, J. Luke, N. (2015). What is the relationship between being in care and the educational outcomes of children? An international systematic review, The Rees Centre for Research in Fostering and Education, University of Oxford. Forsman, H., Brà ¤nnstrà ¶m, L., Vinnerljung, B. Hjern, A. (2016). Does poor school performance cause later psychosocial problems among children in foster care? Evidence from national longitudinal registry data, Child Abuse Neglect, 57, 61-71 Wang, M.T., Willett, J.B., Eccles, J.S. (2011). The Assessment of School Engagement: Examining Dimensionality and Measurement Invariance by Gender and Race/Ethnicity, Journal of School Psychology, 49(4), 465-480 Li, Y. and Lerner, M. (2013). Interrelations of behavioural, emotional, and cognitive school engagement in high school students, Journal Youth Adolescence, 42, 20-32 Wang, M.T., Holcombe, R. (2010) Adolescents Perceptions of School Environment, Engagement, and Academic Achievement in Middle School, American Educational Research Journal, 47(3), 633-662 Li, Y. Lerner, R.M. 2011) Trajectories of School Engagement during Adolescence: Implications for Grades, Depression, Delinquency, and Substance Use, Developmental Psychology, 47(1), 233-247 Chen, R. Simons-Morton, B. (2009) Concurrent changes in conduct problems and depressive symptoms in early adolescents: A developmental person-centred approach, Development and Psychopathology, 21(1), 285-307 Andrews, J. Duncan, S. (1997). Examining the Reciprocal Relation Between Academic Motivation and Substance Use: Effects of Family Relationships, Self-Esteem, and General Deviance, Journal of Behavioural Medicine, 20(6), 523-549 Archambault, I., Janosz, M., Fallu, J.S., Pagani, L.S. (2009). Student Engagement and Its Relationship with Early High School Dropout, Journal of Adolescence, 32(3), 651-670 Pears, K.C., Kim, H.K., Fisher, P.A. and Yoerger, K. (2013). Early school engagement and late elementary outcomes for maltreated children in foster care.   Developmental Psychology, 49(12), 2201-2211 Marks, H. M. (2000). Student engagement in instructional activity: Patterns in the elementary, middle, and high school years. American Educational Research Journal, 37, 153-184 Daly, B. P., Shin, R. Q., Thakral, C., Selders, M., Vera, E. (2009). School engagement among urban adolescents of colour: Does perception of social support and neighbourhood safety matter? Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38, 63-74 Gruman, D. H., Harachi, T. W., Abbott, R. D., Catalano, R. F., Fleming, C. B. (2008). Longitudinal effects of student mobility on three dimensions of elementary school engagement. Child Development, 79, 1833-1852. Stahl, S., Duffy-Hester, A., Stahl, K. (1998). Everything you wanted to know about phonics (but were afraid to ask). Reading Research Quarterly, 33, 338-355 Margaret E., Houchins, D.E., Steventon, C. Sartor, D. (2005) A Comparison of Two Direct Instruction Reading Programs for Urban Middle School Students, Remedial and Special Education, 26(3), 175-182 Kim, T. Axelrod, S. (2005). Direct Instruction: An Educators Guide and a Plea for Action, The Behaviour Analyst Today, 6(2), Page 111-123 Cadette, J.N., Wilson, C.L., Brady, M.P., Dukes, C., Bennett, K.D. (2016) The Effectiveness of Direct Instruction in Teaching Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder to Answer Wh- Questions, Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 46(9), 2968-2978 Borman GD, Hewes GM, Overman LT, Brown S. (2003). Comprehensive school reform and achievement: A meta-analysis, Review of Educational Research, 73(2), 125-230. Dolezal, D.N., Weber, K.P., Evavold, J.J., Wylie, J., Mclaughlin, T. F (2007).The Effects of a Reinforcement Package for On-Task and Reading behaviour with At-Risk and Middle School Students with Disabilities, Child Family behaviour Therapy, 29(2), 9-25 Flynn, R.J., Marquis, R.A., Paquet, M.P., Peeke, L.M. Aubry, T.D. (2012). Effects of individual direct-instruction tutoring on foster childrens academic skills: A randomized trial, Children and Youth Services Review, 34(6), 1183-1189 Rodriguez, R. J. Elbaum, B. (2014) The Role of Student-Teacher Ratio in Parents Perceptions of Schools Engagement Efforts, Journal of Educational Research, 107(1), 69-80 Blatchford, P., Bassett, P. Brown, P. (2011) Examining the Effect of Class Size on Classroom Engagement and Teacher-Pupil Interaction: Differences in Relation to Pupil Prior Attainment and Primary vs. Secondary Schools, Learning and Instruction, 21(6), 715-730 Bennett, N. (1996). Class size in primary schools: Perceptions of head teachers, chairs of governors, teachers and parents, British Educational Research Journal, 22(1), 33 55   Ã‚  

Immigration Reformation

Mexico’s immigration policies comprise single, streamlined laws that ensure that foreign visitors and immigrants are regimented. For a better picture, these include stern rules that these immigrants are in the country legally, that they are able to sustain themselves economically, that they do not become burdens to the society, that they are of good character and have no criminal records, and are contributors to the general wellbeing of the nation.In fact, immigration authorities compile records of each foreign visitor and assure that these visitors do not violate their visa status. They are also banned from meddling with internal politics and those who violate the terms of their entry and who enter under false pretenses are imprisoned or deported (Lillpop). Indeed, the Mexican constitution strictly defines the rights of its citizens and as one may put it, the denial of may fundamental rights to non-citizens, legal or illegal.Though its law makes perfect sense, Mexico is pushi ng the United States to water down the latter’s immigration rules, when, in the first place, its own immigration restrictions are the toughest in the continent. However, also looking at Mexico’s points, El Paso asks the US government to stop raids and dividing American families insisting, â€Å"We are not the Enemy, We are Part of the Solution† (Garcia & Camargo).The rally down in El Paso has emphasized the need for new immigration policies that provide means for immigrants residing in the United States to attain permanent residency. Some say Mexican leaders demanding from the United States immigration laws, which contradict its own. Some even say the agenda of Mexico for such demand is clear: to have a one-way immigration relationship with the United States. However, looking at a broader perspective, I believe Mexico only wants to impose stern rules with regards to foreigners to protect its citizens and the well being of its nations.United States, on the other hand, are trying to impose the same, now with opposition from the Mexicans. Who are directly affected here are those Southerners who live in US soil and vice versa. To avoid stepping on each other’s flags and more importantly to avoid misunderstanding between the neighboring countries, each much provide room for adjustments and meet halfway so as to grant the its citizens, foreign or not, just and humane rights even if they live in a soil foreign to their true nation.Works Cited Lillpop, John. â€Å"Immigration Reform? Lets Try Mexico’s Immigration Law. † 27 February 2007. Canada Free Press. 19 October 2007. . Garcia, Fernando & Camargo, Betty. â€Å"El Paso and Southern New Mexico Communities March and Rally for Just, Humane and Comprehensive Immigration Reform NOW! †. 6 April 2007. Border Network and Human Rights. 19 October 2007. .

How to Develop, Organize, and Plan Instruction

Good planning is the first step to an effective classroom, and one of the six main teacher tasks that excellent teachers must master. A well-planned class reduces stress on the teacher and helps minimize disruptions. When teachers know what they need to accomplish and how they are going to do it, they have a better opportunity to achieve success with the added benefit of less stress. Further, when students are engaged during the entire class period, they have less opportunity to cause disruptions. Obviously, the demeanor of the teacher, the quality of the lesson, and the method of delivery all play into an effective day in class. With that said, it all starts with a good plan. Steps for Planning Instruction Look over the state and national standards and your texts and supplemental materials to determine what concepts you must cover in the year. Make sure to include any required test preparation material. Use this to create a plan of study for your course.Create a personalized lesson plan calendar. This will help you visualize and organize your instruction.Plan your units using your overall plan of study and your calendar.Create detailed unit lesson plans. These should include the following items to be effective:ObjectivesActivitiesTime estimatesRequired materialsAlternatives—Make sure to plan for those students who might be absent during your activities.Assessment—This includes classwork, homework, and tests  Transfer your broad unit plan to a planning book to keep yourself organized. This will help with implementation and focus. This is where all the unit plans come together to give you a broader picture of the year.Write a daily lesson outline and agenda. The details i ncluded will differ depending how detailed you wish to be. Some teachers create a simple outline with times attached to help keep them on track while others include detailed notes and written information. At a bare minimum, you should have an agenda prepared for yourself and your students so that you appear organized and you make smooth transitions. It is very easy to lose student attention as you search for the page that you want them to read or fumble through a stack of papers.Create and/or gather any required items. Make handouts, overheads, lectures notes, manipulatives, etc. If you are going to start each day with a warm-up, then have this created and ready to go. If your lesson requires a movie or item from the media center, make sure that you put in your request early so that you are not disappointed on the day of your lesson. Planning for the Unexpected As most teachers realize, interruptions and unexpected events often occur in class. This might range from pulled fire alarms and unexpected assemblies to your own illnesses and emergencies. Therefore, you should create plans that will help you deal with these unexpected events. Create mini-lessons to help fill up any time that might be left at the end of a class period. Even the best teachers are sometimes left with extra time. Instead of just letting students talk, use this time for extra instruction or possibly educational fun. Further, if an unexpected assembly is called leaving you with just 15 minutes of instruction, these lessons can be a godsend.Emergency lesson plans are a necessity for all teachers. If you cannot make it to school at the last minute or have to leave to deal with a personal emergency, you need to leave lesson plans to help your substitute. This combined with your substitute folder is important to help your classroom continue to function without you.

Nicolau Copernicus - Founder of Modern Astronomy

This profile of Nicolau Copernicus is part ofWhos Who in Medieval History   Nicolau Copernicus was also known as: The Father of Modern Astronomy. His name is sometimes spelled Nicolaus, Nicolas, Nicholas, Nikalaus or Nikolas; in Polish, Mikolaj Kopernik, Niclas Kopernik or Nicolaus Koppernigk. Nicolau Copernicus was known for: Recognizing and promoting the idea that the Earth revolved around the sun. Although he was not the first scientist to propose it, his bold return to the theory (first proposed by Aristarchus of Samos in the 3rd-century B.C.) had significant and far-reaching effects in the evolution of scientific thought. Occupations: AstronomerWriter Places of Residence and Influence: Europe: PolandItaly Important Dates: Born: Feb. 19, 1473Died: May 24, 1543 About Nicolau Copernicus: Copernicus studied liberal arts, which included both astronomy and astrology as part of the science of the stars, at the University of Krakà ³w, but left before completing his degree. He resumed his studies at the University of Bologna, where he lived in the same house as Domenico Maria de Novara, the principal astronomer there. Copernicus assisted de Novara in some of his observations and in the production of the annual astrological forecasts for the city. It is at Bologna that he probably first encountered the works of Regiomontanus, whose translation of Ptolemys Almagest would make it possible for Copernicus to successfully refute the ancient astronomer. Later, at the University of Padua, Copernicus studied medicine, which was closely associated with astrology at that time due to the belief that the stars influenced the dispositions of the body. He finally received a doctorate in canon law from the University of Ferrara, an institution hed never attended. Returning to Poland, Copernicus secured a scholastry (an in abstentia teaching post) at Wroclaw, where he primarily worked as a medical doctor and manager of Church affairs. In his spare time, he studied the stars and the planets (decades before the telescope was invented), and applied his mathematical understanding to the mysteries of the night sky. In so doing, he developed his theory of a system in which the Earth, like all the planets, revolved around the sun, and which simply and elegantly explained the curious retrograde movements of the planets. Copernicus wrote his theory in De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Orbs). The book was completed in 1530 or so, but it wasnt published until the year he died. Legend has it that a copy of the printers proof was placed in his hands as he lay in a coma, and he woke long enough to recognize what he was holding before he died. More Copernicus Resources: Portrait of Nicolau CopernicusNicolau Copernicus in Print The Life of Nicolaus Copernicus: Disputing the ObviousBiography of Copernicus from Nick Greene, former About.com Guide to Space/Astronomy. Nicolau Copernicus on the Web Nicolaus CopernicusAdmiring, substantial biography from a Catholic perspective, by J. G. Hagen at the Catholic Encyclopedia.Nicolaus Copernicus: 1473 - 1543This bio at the MacTutor site includes very straightforward explanations of some of Copernicuss theories, as well as photos of some places significant to his life.Nicolaus CopernicusExtensive, well-supported examination of the astronomers life and works by Sheila Rabin at The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Medieval Mathematics and AstronomyMedieval Poland The text of this document is copyright  ©2003-2016 Melissa Snell. You may download or print this document for personal or school use, as long as the URL below is included. Permission is   not  granted to reproduce this document on another website. For publication permission,  please   contact  Melissa Snell. The URL for this document is:http://historymedren.about.com/od/cwho/p/copernicus.htm Chronological Index Geographical Index Index by Profession, Achievement, or Role in Society